Unpacking gender equality and the cultural economy

What will it take to create a level playing field for women in arts, culture, and media, and how are Western countries doing? Hertie School Senior Professor of Sociology Helmut K. Anheier and Analytics Consultant and former Hertie School Research Associate Darinka Marković provide answers to this question in their new book Gender Equality in the Cultural Economy – Comparative Perspectives. 

In an interview, Anheier and Marković share their motivation for conducting the study, discuss the policies shaping gender equality worldwide, and explore what steps governments should take to advance gender equity in the cultural sector.

What inspired you to explore gender inequality specifically in the cultural economy?

Anheier: In 2017, the then Commissioner for Culture and the Media in the German Chancellery, Monika Grütters, commissioned the Hertie School to study the status of female artists and cultural workers in a select number of European countries, and to identify policies and good practices for reducing gender pay and pension gaps. The resulting report, entitled Gender Equality Policy in the Arts, Culture and Media: Comparative Perspectives, was presented to the Commissioner’s Round Table on Women in Culture and Media, as well as at various other events and institutions.

Why the new report?

Anheier: Realising gender equity in the cultural economy is a tenacious problem, with gender pay and pension gaps and lacking recognition of women persisting in all countries studied. This time around, we wanted to look closer at the forces and structures underlying this complex problem. To advance and deepen our previous analysis, we added a conceptual framework formed by cultural, gender and labour studies on the one hand, and interdisciplinary perspectives from sociology, economics and political science on the other. We also included the United States to broaden the comparative focus beyond Europe and expanded the empirical base significantly.

In your book, you describe the Lost Frida Kahlos Problem as the systematic exclusion and marginalisation of female artists. What steps can we take to create a more level playing field for budding female artists?

Anheier: We introduced the term Lost Frida Kahlos Problem in reference to the Lost Einstein Problem in sociology, which describes a situation whereby existing social and economic inequality and barriers to upward mobility reduce the likelihood of young talent being exposed to nurturing environments that encourage intellectual development.
Many Frida Kahlos never had an equal chance to advance as artists because the norms, institutions and organisations were set against them. So, we have to ask: how can we nurture the talents of a future Pablita Picasso the same way as we would those of a Pablo? The answer: by changing the limiting features of the art worlds.

We’re making progress, but that progress is uneven across countries. Countries that do better, like Sweden, have introduced gender mainstreaming, or the requirement that decisions in all relevant policy areas, institutions and organisations, and at all levels are assessed in terms of gender equality. Countries that fare less well, like the United States, have failed to do this. Gender mainstreaming is the key for gender equality in arts and culture, as in any other field.

Your book also discusses the Bauhaus Women Problem, which refers to women in the Bauhaus movement who were marginalised and whose contributions were soon forgotten. How do you think this historical exclusion reflects broader patterns of gender inequality in the cultural economy today, and what can be done to prevent the erasure of women’s contributions in the future?

Anheier: The Bauhaus Women Problem relates to structural forgetting, or the process by which artists are no longer remembered and do not remain in some form of collective memory that signals continued recognition, reputation and relevance. Many, if not most artists suffer this fate. Yes, again, it’s the structural forces of the art worlds that make it more or less likely that – mostly male – artists remain in collective memory. Elite networks and institutions such as museums and academia perform these critical gate-keeping functions.And that is where we need change: in the composition, attitudes, preferences and decision-making of these networks and the boards that govern gate-keeping institutions. As with the Lost Frida Kahlos Problem, gender mainstreaming is the essential policy principle all institutions, boards and committees should not only adopt but also implement.

Ms Marković, Germany has made strides in gender equality but still faces significant gaps, particularly in leadership roles within the cultural economy. What barriers prevent women from advancing in these positions, and what policy changes or initiatives could help address this issue?

Marković: Quota-based legislation has helped women access higher positions, though this comes with stigma as women are often outnumbered by male colleagues (who might see their female colleagues as ‘quota women’). In media, although women are the majority in journalism programmes, they remain underrepresented in managerial roles, especially in smaller, male-led regional media outlets. 

It’s worth noting that Germany’s joint taxation system incentivises women to reduce work hours or leave the workforce if their spouse earns more – a contrast to individual taxation models, like Sweden’s, which tend to support women’s career continuity. To address these barriers, Germany could consider moving toward individual taxation and strengthening support for gender diversity in leadership. 

What specific policies or initiatives in Sweden’s long-term commitment to gender mainstreaming do you believe have been most effective, and could these be applied successfully in other countries with differing political and economic systems?

Marković: Sweden’s commitment to gender equality has been effective largely thanks to the consistent support across successive governments since the 1990s, who have entrenched it as a core national value. Rather than imposing gender quotas, Sweden emphasises robust public funding, clear goal-setting, and regular milestones assessment. This integrative approach ensures that gender equality is woven into all sectors of society. In addition, Sweden’s success in gender equality is also supported by its dual earner/dual carer model, which promotes both parents participating equally in work and caregiving.

Other countries, even with different political and economic systems, could adapt aspects of Sweden’s model by fostering across-the-aisle support for gender equality, securing dedicated funding, and implementing clear metrics to track progress without relying solely on quotas. 

In your book, you note that Poland has the highest percentage of women in cultural employment, yet that it ranks lowest in gender equality progress. What factors contribute to this paradox, and how do you think Poland could overcome these challenges to better support women in the cultural economy?

Marković: The paradox of Poland’s high percentage of women in cultural employment alongside its low ranking in gender equality can be traced back to a blend of historical and structural factors. Poland’s socialist-era regime promoted workforce participation, but recent conservative policies have curtailed certain women's rights, such as reproductive freedoms. Additionally, cultural governance in Poland is decentralised; local authorities fund cultural initiatives, and there is no national mandate promoting gender equality. Although women dominate in public cultural jobs, they rarely reach top leadership, and the sector itself remains underpaid. A lack of flexible work options, limited childcare, and gender biases further hinder progress, as does the dominance of male artists in media visibility.

To support women better, Poland could introduce a centralised gender equality strategy, invest in childcare access for working mothers, encourage local cultural bodies to elevate female artists, and, overall, promote equal representation in leadership.

Join us at the Hertie School’s Henrik Enderlein Forum on 4 December at 6:00 pm for a panel discussion on this topic featuring Professor Anheier, Marković and leading voices from across the culture sector.